|
A thermodynamic system is the content of a macroscopic volume in space, along with its walls and surroundings; it undergoes thermodynamic processes according to the principles of thermodynamics. A physical system qualifies as a thermodynamic system only if it can be adequately described by thermodynamic variables such as temperature, entropy, internal energy and pressure. The thermodynamic state of a thermodynamic system is its internal state as specified by its state variables. A thermodynamic account also requires a special kind of function called a state function. For example, if the state variables are internal energy, volume and mole amounts, the needed further state function is entropy. These quantities are inter-related by one or more functional relationships called equations of state. Thermodynamics defines the restrictions on the possible equations of state imposed by the laws of thermodynamics through that further function of state. The system is delimited by walls or boundaries, either actual or notional, across which conserved (such as matter and energy) or unconserved (such as entropy) quantities can pass into and out of the system. The space outside the thermodynamic system is known as the ''surroundings'', a ''reservoir'', or the ''environment''. The properties of the walls determine what transfers can occur. A wall that allows transfer of a quantity is said to be permeable to it, and a thermodynamic system is classified by the permeabilities of its several walls. A transfer between system and surroundings can arise by contact, such as conduction of heat, or by long-range forces such as an electric field in the surroundings. A system with walls that prevent all transfers is said to be isolated. This is an idealized conception, because in practice some transfer is always possible, for example by gravitational forces. It is an axiom of thermodynamics that an isolated system eventually reaches internal thermodynamic equilibrium, when its state no longer changes with time. According to the permeabilities of its walls, a system that is not isolated can be in thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings, or else may be in a state that is constant or precisely cyclically changing in time - a steady state that is far from equilibrium. Classical thermodynamics considers only states of thermodynamic systems in equilibrium that are either constant or precisely cycling in time. The walls of a closed system allow transfer of energy as heat and as work, but not of matter, between it and its surroundings. The walls of an ''open system'' allow transfer both of matter and of energy.〔Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954). ''Chemical Thermodynamics'', Longmans, Green & Co, London, p. 66.〕〔Tisza, L. (1966). ''Generalized Thermodynamics'', M.I.T Press, Cambridge MA, pp. 112–113.〕〔Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). ''Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists'', (1st edition 1949) 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 14.〕〔Münster, A. (1970). ''Classical Thermodynamics'', translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London, pp. 6–7.〕〔Haase, R. (1971). Survey of Fundamental Laws, chapter 1 of ''Thermodynamics'', pages 1–97 of volume 1, ed. W. Jost, of ''Physical Chemistry. An Advanced Treatise'', ed. H. Eyring, D. Henderson, W. Jost, Academic Press, New York, lcn 73–117081, p. 3.〕〔Tschoegl, N.W. (2000). ''Fundamentals of Equilibrium and Steady-State Thermodynamics'', Elsevier, Amsterdam, ISBN 0-444-50426-5, p. 5.〕〔Silbey, R.J., Alberty, R.A., Bawendi, M.G. (1955/2005). ''Physical Chemistry'', fourth edition, Wiley, Hoboken NJ, p. 4.〕 This scheme of definition of terms is not uniformly used, though it is convenient for some purposes. In particular, some writers use 'closed system' where 'isolated system' is here used.〔Callen, H.B. (1960/1985). ''Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics'', (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-86256-8, p. 17.〕〔ter Haar, D., Wergeland, H. (1966). ''Elements of Thermodynamics'', Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading MA, p. 43.〕 In 1824 Sadi Carnot described a thermodynamic system as the working substance (such as the volume of steam) of any heat engine under study. The very existence of such thermodynamic systems may be considered a fundamental postulate of equilibrium thermodynamics, though it is not listed as a numbered law.〔Bailyn, M. (1994). ''A Survey of Thermodynamics'', American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3, p. 20.〕〔Tisza, L. (1966). ''Generalized Thermodynamics'', M.I.T Press, Cambridge MA, p. 119.〕 According to Bailyn, the commonly rehearsed statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is a consequence of this fundamental postulate.〔Bailyn, M. (1994). ''A Survey of Thermodynamics'', American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3, p. 22.〕 In equilibrium thermodynamics the state variables do not include fluxes because in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium all fluxes have zero values by definition. Equilibrium thermodynamic processes may of course involve fluxes but these must have ceased by the time a thermodynamic process or operation is complete bringing a system to its eventual thermodynamic state. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics allows its state variables to include non-zero fluxes, that describe transfers of matter or energy or entropy between a system and its surroundings.〔Eu, B.C. (2002). ''Generalized Thermodynamics. The Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes and Generalized Hydrodynamics'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, ISBN 1-4020-0788-4.〕 ==Overview== Thermodynamics describes the macroscopic physics of matter and energy, especially including heat transfer, by using the concept of the ''thermodynamic system'', a region of the universe that is under study, specified by thermodynamic state variables, together with the kinds of transfer that may occur between it and its surroundings, as determined by the physical properties of the walls of the system. An example system is the system of hot liquid water and solid table salt in a sealed, insulated test tube held in a vacuum (the surroundings). The test tube constantly loses heat in the form of black-body radiation, but the heat loss progresses very slowly. If there is another process going on in the test tube, for example the dissolution of the salt crystals, it probably occurs so quickly that any heat lost to the test tube during that time can be neglected. Thermodynamics in general does not measure time, but it does sometimes accept limitations on the time frame of a process. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Thermodynamic system」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|